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UNIVERSITY   OF    ILLINOIS    BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXII  September  29,  1924_  No.  5 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
section  1103,  Act  of  October  3,   1917,  authorized  July  31,    1918.] 


EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  29 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 

THE   USE  OF   THE   QUESTION  IN 
CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION 

By 

Charles  W.  Odell 

Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


W  UBK&K*  OF  IHI 
FEB    7  1925 

EBSITY  0F  li-UrtOiS 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


THE  USE  OF  THE  QUESTION  IN  CLASSROOM 
INSTRUCTION 

The  use  of  the  question.  The  question  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant devices  at  the  command  of  the  teacher  for  directing  the  learning 
of  children.  Its  use  may  be  discussed  from  two  standpoints:  (1) 
questioning  by  the  members  of  the  class,  and  (2)  questioning  by  the 
teacher.  The  latter  usually  is  thought  of  when  the  subject  is  men- 
tioned. The  former  is,  however,  very  important.  This  paper  presents 
a  limited  discussion  of  questioning  by  the  class,  followed  by  a  more 
detailed  consideration  of  that  by  the  teacher. 

QUESTIONING  BY  THE  CLASS 

Importance  of  questioning  by  the  class.  A  class  that  asks 
numerous  questions  due  to  an  honest  desire  to  secure  information 
will  learn,  regardless  of  the  teacher.  If  a  class  does  not  already  have 
the  questioning  attitude  it  is  worth  the  expenditure  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  thought,  time,  and  effort  on  the  teacher's  part  to  lead  it  to 
acquire  this  attitude.  However,  the  mere  asking  of  questions  by  the 
pupils  is  not  the  desired  end.  It  is  vital  that  the  questions  be  of  the 
proper  sort. 

The  teacher's  responsibility  for  stimulating  questioning  by  the 
class.  Every  young  child  of  normal  or  nearly  normal  intelligence 
naturally  asks  many  questions  and,  if  .not  discouraged  by  receiving 
little  attention  or  unsatisfactory  answers,  he  will  continue  to  do  so  as 
he  grows  older.  Even  though  his  questions  have  been  neglected  by 
parents  and  other  members  of  the  home  circle  the  tendency  to  ask 
them  is  still  strong  when  he  enters  the  public  school.  Therefore 
teachers  cannot  escape  a  portion  of  the  responsibility  when  this 
tendency  is  discouraged.  They  should  not  merely  avail  themselves 
of  it  if  it  exists  at  the  time  pupils  enter  school  but  should  encourage 
and  develop  it  in  the  case  of  dull  children  and  of  those  in  whom  it 
has  been  discouraged.  A  few  suggestions  as  to  how  this  may  be  done 
will  be  found  in  the  next  paragraph.  Too  many  teachers  feel  that 
they  ought  not  to  take  time  to  give  satisfactory  answers  to  pupils' 
questions  and  thus  cause  the  children  to  decide  that  it  is  practically 
useless  to  ask  questions  in  the  schoolroom. 

[3] 


How  to  stimulate  questioning  by  the  class.  One  of  the  most 
effective  ways  of  encouraging  the  questioning  attitude  on  the  part 
of  the  members  of  the  class  consists  in  the  proper  handling  of  the 
questions  that  are  asked.  It  is  not  wise  to  give  direct  and  complete 
answers  to  all  questions,  but  the  willing  and  skillful  teacher,  without 
doing  this,  can  satisfy  the  pupils'  quest  for  information.  The  habit 
of  always  giving  direct  answers  does  indeed  stimulate  questioning 
but  it  leads  also  to  careless  and  unthinking  questions  and  tends  to 
prevent  pupils  from  making  independent  efforts  to  secure  the  infor- 
mation needed.  On  many  occasions  the  pupils  may  be  told  0t30urc.es 
where  they  can  find  certain  desired  items.  In  other  cases  the  teacher 
may  guide  pupils  to  arrive  at  their  own  answers  by  suggesting 
methods^of  attack,  by  reminding  them  of  similar  discussions  that 
have  beenConsidered  previously,  or  by  asking  them  a  few  questions 
that  will  guide  their  thinking  along  the  proper  Jines.  Theteacher 
should  provide  ready-made  answers  when  the  information  desired 
is  possessed  by  herself  alone,  when  an  unwarranted  amount  of  labor 
would  be  required  on  the  pupil's  part,  or  when  the  particular  item, 
even  though  of  minor  importance,  is  connected  with  the  work  being 
done.  In  the  case_of  such  minor  questions  the  teacher  will  find  it 
advisable  ofcm  to  call  upon  another  member  of  the  class^lor  the 
answer  raTrTeTThan  to  give  it  herself.  In  the  use  of  all  these  methods 
as  in  the  direction  of  all  pupiTattivity,  the  teacher's  aim  should  be 
_t.o  stimulate  the  pupil's  thinking.  Furthermore,  she  can  lead  the 
pupils  to  understand  what  kinds  of  questions  are  suitable  in  the 
schoolroom  and  what  are  not  and  she  can  guide  them  also  as  to  the 
time  to  ask  those  that  are  appropriate.  She  should  not  bluntly 
refuse  to  consider  even  inappropriate  questions,  but  could  perhaps 
reply  with  a  tactful  remark  such  as :  "That's  an  interesting  question 
but  it  doesn't  seem  to  be  connected  with  what  we're  doing  just 
now.  Won't  you  ask  it  again  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  period?" 
Indeed,  she  may  well  remember  to  bring  it  up  herself  at  a  convenient 
hour.  She  should  be  willing  also,  before  the  sessions  begin,  at  recesses 
and  other  similar  times,  to  answer  questions  on  which  recitation 
periods  should  not  be  spent. 

The  problem  of  stimulating  the  questioning  attitude  in  the^case 
of  individuals  or  of  whole  classes  in  which  it  has  been  persistently 
discouraged  is  much  more  difficult  than  that  of  maintaining  the 
natural,  unspoiled  attitude.  It  is,  however,  possible  even  in  the  tipper 
grades  to  revive  to  a  considerable  degree  an  attitude  which  has  been 

[4] 


well-nigh  submerged.  Sometimes  each  member  of  the  class  may  be 
required  to  prepare  one  or  more  questions  as  part_of  the  assignment. 
These  questions  may  deal  with  the  material  actually  in  the  textBo"6k 
or  with  supplementary  or  related  topics,  and  should  require  interpre- 
tation, comparison,  criticism  or  some  other  form  of  thinking,  not  mere 
matter-of-fact  answers.  Another  device  is  for  the  teacher  to  assign  or 
present  material  so  interesting  and  yet  with  such  obvious  gaps  that 
the  curiosity  of  the  pupils  is  aroused,  and  they  are  led  to  ask  ques- 
tions. Individual  assignments  also  may  be  very  helpful.  A  short 
interesting  report  on  a  topic  connected  with  the  general  subject  being 
studied  will  often  lead  other  members  of  the  class  to  ask  questions 
connected  with  the  material  presented  in  the  report.  In  any  situation 
the  teacher  should  avoid  making  the  class  feel  that  it  must  move  at 
high  speed  in  order  to  cover  a  certain  amount  of  ground,  for  such  a 
feeling  very  definitely  discourages  questioning.  STie  should  bear  in 
mind  that  her  job  is  to  teach  children  rather  than  a  certain  number 
of  pages  in  the  text. 

Kinds  of  questions  asked  by  the  pupils.  It  is  important  not 
only  that  the  teacher  stimulate  the  pupils  to  ask  questions  but  also 
that  she  guide  them  to  formulate  suitable  questions.  The  most 
important  guiding  principle  for  doing  this  has  been  indicated  in  the 
preceding  discussion.  The  asking  of  questions  should  not  be  a  sub- 
stitute for  thinking  but  should  be  rather  the  result  of  mental  activity. 
In  other  words,  the  questions  asked  should  spring  from  the  work 
that  the  pupils  have  been  doing.  The  pupils  should  learn  also  to 
attack  those  questions  which  arise  in  their  own  thinking  and  to  bring 
only  those  which  they  cannot  solve  before  the  class. 

The  questions  asked  by  pupils  should  result  usually  from  the 
development  of  the  critical  attitude.  Pupils  should  be  trained  to 
maintain  this  frame  of  mind  during  both  study  and  recitation,  to 
question  the  truth  and  accuracy  of  statements  open  to  such  question- 
ing. Ordinarily  statements  of  fact  should  not  be  thought  of  in  this 
way  but  statements  of  probability  or  possibility,  motive,  interpreta-v 
tion,  supposition,  etc.  should  be.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  pupil 
should  question  the  statement  that  Columbus  discovered  America  in 
1492,  but  he  may  well  ask  concerning  the  assertion  that  if  he  had  not 
discovered  it  someone  else  would  have  within  the  next  five  years. 
Questions  sljxiuld  arise  also  in  connection  with  the  study  of  books  orr^ 
articles  treating  of  the  same  topic.  These  will  deal  to  some  extent 
with  differences  in  interpretations  and  explanations  or  even  in  facts, 

[5] 


but  may  be  concerned  also  with  differences  in  treatments  of  a  topic 
which  are  not  at  all  contradictory  to  each  other.  The  pupil  may  well 
wonder,  for  example,  why  one  sketch  of  the  life  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin devotes  much  attention  to  his  boyhood  days,  whereas  another 
passes  over  this  period  of  his  life  in  a  few  sentences.  In  case  material 
ythat  is  familiar  in  daily  life  is  being  studied^  numerous  questions 
should  arise.  For  exampTeT^wlrei^l^vers^fe  studied  in  physics  many 
pupils  can  undoubtedly  call  to  mind  applications  of  the  principle  of 
the  lever  which  are  unlike  those  described  in  the  textbook  and  which 
therefore  naturally  lead  to  questioning.  In  many  textbooks,  especially 
in  histories,  statements  of  facts  are  given  with  none  of  the  reasons 
or  causes.  Such  cases  should  arouse  the  questioning  attitude.  Thus, 
if  the  bare  statement  that  one  side  won  a  certain  election  or  a 
certain  battle  is  given,  perhaps  accompanied  by  some  of  the  details 
but  by  no  suggested  reasons,  the  latter  should  be  sought. 

The  writer  does  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  meaning  that  all 
questions  asked  by  members  of  the  class  should  be  of  a  critical 
nature.  Some  may  be  merely  requests  for  information  that  cannot  be 
found  by  the  pupil  and  that  is  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  class 
work.  Others  may  arise  spontaneously  during  the  recitation  period, 
often  dealing  with  some  very  minor  point  that  is  of  interest  only  at 
that  time.     - 

QUESTIONING  BY  THE  TEACHER 

Types  of  questions  used  by  the  teacher.  Several  different 
schemes  of  classifying  questions  have  been  suggested  by  writers  on 
the  subject.  Probably  the  most  practical  plan  is  that  suggested  by 
Charters.  He  mentions  three  general  classes:' test  questions,  which 
are  intended  to  find  out  how  well  the  pupils  have  mastered  the 
material  assigned f  developmental  questions,  whose  purpose  is  to  guide 
"  the  pupils'  thinking;  and  informational  questions,  which  are  asked 
because  the  teacher  really  wishes  to  secure  information  for  herself  or 
to  have  it  presented  to  the  other  members  of  the  class.  Most  teachers 
over-use  test  questions,  make  only  a  limited  use  of  developmental 
questions  and  rarely  ask  informational  questions.  Continued  practice 
of  this  sort  has  a  very  great  effect  in  lessening  the  pupils'  enthusiasm 
and  desire  for  self-expression.  They  come  to  regard  the  class  period 
as  a  time  when  they  are  asked  questions  in  connection  with  the 
assignment  or  when  more  material  is  given  them  and  not  as  an 
occasion  for  pursuing  the  quest  of  knowledge  which  they  have  a 

[6] 


desire  to  acquire.  It  will  be  seen  later  that  the  purpose  of  the  ques- 
tion, whether  test,  developmental  or  informational,  not  infrequently 
determines  how  it  should  be  formulated. 

Test  questions  not  limited  to  memory  work  alone.  Test  ques- 
tions, as  stated  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  are  intended  to  find  out 
how  well  the  pupils  have  mastered  the  material  assigned.  This  state- 
ment must  not  be  interpreted  too  narrowly.  Test  questions  should 
be  used  to  find  out  not  merely  how  accurately  facts  have  been 
memorized  but  also  how  well  they  can  be  applied  to  new  situations. 
In  most  cases  the  best  test  questions  are  of  the  latter  sort.  For 
example,  a  more  valid  measure  of  a  pupil's  practical  knowledge  of 
the  multiplication  table  is  secured  when  he  solves  problems  requiring 
multiplication  than  when  he  repeats  a  portion  of  the  multiplication 
table.  Likewise,  translating  a  selection  is  a  more  valid  test  of  ability 
in  a  foreign  language  than  giving  the  declension  of  a  noun  or  the 
conjugation  of  a  verb.  The  fact  that  a  question  tests  ability  does 
not  prevent  it  from  fulfilling  a  developmental  function  also. 

The  place  of  developmental  questions.  In  speaking  of  develop- 
mental questions  the  writer  has  in  mind  especially  those  thaL_aie 

ngpH   tn  Hpyelnp  nr  bring  nut  new  subject-matter  anH   that  ap>jjwe- 

fore  usually  used  inmajring  the  qssigTrmpnt  In  a  more  general  way 
developmental  questions  may  be  identified  with  the  developmental 
lesson,  which  has  been  so  widely  advocated  by  the  Herbartians  and 
which,  of  course,  includes  and  follows  the  five  formal  steps  of  prepar- 
ation, presentation,  comparison,  generalization,  and  application.  In 
this  more  general  sense,  developmental  questions  have  probably  been 
over-used  by  many  teachers.  It  must  not  be  assumed  that  it  is 
always,  or  even  most  often,  better  to  develop  given  material  com- 
pletely than  to  present  it  in  final  fdrm.  Many  facts  and  rules  are  best 
acquired  by  pure  memory.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of  chil- 
dren in  the  elementary  grades. 

On  the  other  hand,  developmental  questions  do  have  a  real  place 
in  teaching,  although  no  set  of  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down 
for  their  use.  It  may,  however,  be  taken  as  a  guiding  principle  that 
when  the  explanation  or_ reasonZIs-  important^ the  developmental 
methocITs  usually  good,  but  that  when  merely  information  is  the  aim 
it  should  rarely  be  used.  Furthermore,  its  use  should  depend  upon 
the  age,"ability  and  previous  training  of  the  pupils  as  well  as  upon  the 
subject-matter  itself.    A  rule  in  formal  grammar  may  appropriately 

[7] 


be  developed  in  a  high-school  class  but  should  be  merely  learned  and 
applied  in  an  elementary  class.  The  especial  use  of  developmental 
questions  which  the  writer  wishes  to  emphasize  is  that  connected  with 
the  assignment.  Its  pur^cj&e-is^ojnake  sure  that  the  pupils  under- 
stand the  new  material  to  be^madJeaTT^  lHhTpupils  are 
fairly  familiar  with  English  grammar  most  grammatical  assignments 
in  a  foreign  language  may  well  be  developed  from  this  previous 
familiarity.  A  few  minutes  used  in  this  way  while  assigning  the 
lesson  will  frequently  save  a  much  longer  period  of  time  in  study  or 
perhaps  even  in  the  following  recitation. 

Frequent  use  of  informational  questions.  The  opportunity  of 
asking  for  information  not  already  possessed  by  the  teacher  varies 
greatly  with  different  subjects.  In  some,  such  as  Latin,  mathematics 
and  grammar,  it  is  relatively  rare  that  pupils  can  contribute  anything 
not  already  known  to  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  the  situation 
is  very  unusual  if  the  members  of  a  class  in  nature  study,  agriculture 
or  history  cannot,  from  time  to  time,  contribute  items  of  information 
which  are  new  to  the  teacher.  The  opportunity  of  securing  informa- 
tion unfamiliar  to  other  members  of  the  class  is  much  wider,  though 
it  too  depends  largely  on  the  subject-matter.  The  ability  of  the  pupil§ 
to  present  worth-while  material  also  varies  widely  with  their  environ- 
ment and  with  the  amount  of  travel  and  reading  which  they  have 
done.  ^Teachers  often  hesitate  to  call  for  such  information  because 
they  fear  their  prestige  will  be  lowered  if  they  admit  that  the  pupils 
know  facts  which  they  do  not,  because  they  believe  the  amount  of 
time  consumed  by  the  pupils  is  too  great  in  proportion  to  the  value  of 
the  contributions,  or  because  they  feel  that  drill  on  textbook  matter 
or  their  own  discussions  would  be  more  profitable  to  the  class/  The 
fear  of  losing  prestige  is  practically  groundless  and  applies  only  in 
case  a  teacher  is  not  well  informed  in  general  regarding  her  subject. 
There  is  some  validity  to  the  other  reasons  advanced,  but  their  real 
force  is  that  this  method  should  be  used  with  care  rather  than  dis- 
carded altogether.^  Giving  pupils  an  opportunity  to  supply  informa- 
tion is  almost  certain  to  result  in  an  increased  interest  in  the  work  of 
the  class.  / 

Certain  prerequisites  of  good  questioning.  Skilled  questioning 
demands  at  least  three  qualities  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  (1)  rapid 
and  clear  thinking;  (2)  a  keen  sense  of  relative  values;  and  (3)  skill 
in  expressing  or  wording  questions.  This  does  not  mean  that  all  three 

[8] 


of  these  qualities  are  equally  essential  in  asking  questions  of  different 
types.  For  example,  a  teacher,  without  rapid  thinking  or  skillful 
wording,  may  prepare  and  ask  an  effective  set  of  test  questions.  To 
be  a  master  in  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  questions,  however,  one  must 
possess  these  three  qualities.  The  first  is  essential  because  it  is  im- 
possible to  plan_a~  complete  series  -**f— gjipstjpns  in_detail.  All  the 
answers  that  pupils  will  give  and  all  the  resulting  difficulties  that  will 
arise  cannot  be  anticipated  even  by  the  most  experienced  teacher. 
No  two  classes  are  the  same.  The  second  is  required  for  at  least  two 
reasons.  In  the  first  place  time  is  not  available  for  asking  questions 
concerning  everything  in- ^e-  content  of  tfie~  C£airag__arid  therefore 
those  thiQ^^that_are_most  important  must  be  selected.  In  tn*£"second, 
the  teacher  must  evalucrteL^hriost  instantaneouslyanswers  of  many 


degrees  of  merit.  This  requires  not  merely  rapid  and  cleaf  thinking 
but  alsoa"iteen  sense  of  relative  values.  The  third  quality,  that  of 
skillful  expression,  is  necessary Jn  osda*  thnt  ^herniations  be  under- 
stood and  that  their  foTnT  be  a  model  of  language  usage  tor  the  pupils. 
Central  questions  prepared  in  advance.  It  is  probably  wise  for 
an  inexperienced  teacher  to  prepare  in  advance  a  complete  and 
detailed  list  of  the  questions  she  washes  to  ask.  This  is  no  longer 
essential  when  she  becomes  fairly  experienced,  but  it  is  highly  desir- 
able that  she  predetermine  the  central  or  main  questions.  These 
should  be  organized  sequentially,  should  form  a  unified  series  and 
should  deal  with  the  main  points  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  covered. 
For  example,  the  discussion  of  the  following  list  of  questions  might 
serve  as  the  backbone  of  a  recitation  on  the  life  of  Washington: 

1.  Give  an  account  of  Washington's  life  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Revolution. 

2.  Discuss  his  services  to  the  colonies  during  the  war. 

3.  What   part   did   he   play   in   constructing   and   securing  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution? 

4.  Outline  his  presidential  career. 

Around  these  central  questions  should  be  arranged  the  minor  and 
more  detailed  questions,  which  may,  to  some  extent,  be  thought  out 
while  the  recitation  is  in  progress.  The  teacher  in  planning  the  lesson 
may  frame  enough  of  these  detailed  questions  to  use  during  the  whole 
recitation  period  but,  if  so,  she  must  be  ready  to  modify  them  to  suit 
the  situation.  Needless  to  say  these  minor  questions  should  not 
attempt  to  cover  all  the  detailed  points  contained  in  the  assigned 
material  but  should  make  merely  a  sampling  of  them. 

[9] 


Topical  questions  generally  the  best,  except  for  drill.  Except 
when  the  purpose  is  drill,  questions  usually  should  be  topical  in  nature. 
That  is,  they  should  require  that  a  given  topic  be  discussed  at  some 
length.  In  doing  this  the  pupils  themselves  must  organize  the 
material.  The  four  questions  given  above  on  the  life  of  Washington 
are  all  topical  in  their  nature.  It  is  much  better  to  ask  a  single  ques- 
tion of  this  type  than  to  use  a  series,  each  of  which  calls  for  one 
detail.  For  example,  "Discuss  the  character  of  Napoleon,"  is  better 
than,  "Was  Napoleon  ambitious?  Was  he  scrupulous?  Was  he  ener- 
getic? Was  he  patriotic?  etc."  The  use  of  topical  questions  implies 
that  the  number  asked  will  be  comparatively  small,  likewise  that  a 
few  moments  will  be  given  the  pupil  to  think  over  and  organize  his 
material  before  he  begins  to  reply. 

Alternating  questions  undesirable.  Alternating  questions,  that 
is,  those  that  must  be  answered  by  "yes"  or  "no"  or  by  one  of  the- 
two  other  alternatives,  should  be  avoided.  Pupils,  even  if  they  know-' 
nothing  about  the  subject,  have  one  chance  out  of  two  to  guess  the 
correct  answer.  A  question  such  as  "Did  Jefferson  or  Hamilton  con- 
tribute more  to  the  stability  of  our  early  government?"  is  of  this 
type.  If,  however,  it  is  followed  by  "Why?"  or  "Give  your  reason"  it 
becomes  equivalent  to  a  thought  question  and  is  acceptable.  The 
use  of  alternating  questions  can  usually  be  avoided  by'  rewording 
them.  For  example,  instead  of  asking,  "Is  the  biceps  muscle  in  the 
upper  arm?"  the  teacher  may  say,  "Where  is  the  biceps  muscle 
located?"  In  written  tests  consisting  of  a  fairly  large  number  of 
questions  the  alternative  form  may  be  used,  as  the  method  of 
scoring  largely  takes  care  of  the  possibility  of  guessing  correctly. 

Leading  questions  rarely  in  place.  Under  most  conditions  lead- 
ing questions,  that  is,  those  which  give  hints  as  to  the  correct  answers, 
are  out  of  place.  Such  a  question  as,  "Longfellow  wrote  The  Village 
Blacksmith,'  didn't  he?"  is  practically  worthless.  Many  teachers  who 
recognize  that  a  question  such  as  this  has  little  value  overlook  the 
fact  that  the  form  of  the  question,  "Did  Longfellow  write  The  Vil- 
lage Blacksmith'?"  is  also  essentially  leading  in  its  wording.  Unless 
the  answer  were  affirmative  such  a  question  woyld  rarely  be  asked 
and  most  pupils  know  this.  Occasionally  in  the  case  of  bashful  or 
timid  pupils  who  need  to  be  encouraged,  leading  questions  may  be 
used  legitimately,  but  should  not  be  long  continued  with  any  one 
pupil.  There  is  likewise  a  place  for  them  in  developing  new  material, 
in  which  case,  however,  they  really  amount  to  statements. 

[10] 


Elliptical  questions  to  be  avoided.  Another  form  of  question 
that  should  be  used  rarely  if  at  all  in  oral  work  is  the  elliptical  ques- 
tion, that  is,  one  containing  a  statement  with  a  word  or  two  left  out 
which  the  pupils  are  to  supply.    For  example,  "The  poet  says  that 

the  muscles  of  the  blacksmith's  arms  are  strong  as  (what?)" 

is  not  nearly  so  good  as,  "What  does  the  poet  say  of  the  blacksmith's 
muscles?"  Such  questions  are  liable  to  suggest  the  answer  by  their 
wording  and  to  cause  the  pupils  to  guess  rather  than -to  recall  or 
think.  As  is  the  case  with  alternating  questions,  elliptical  questions 
also  may  be  used  in  written  tests. 

Multiple  questions  usually  confusing.  Multiple  questions  also 
are  to  be  avoided  in  most  cases.  Ordinarily  they  serve  to  confuse  the 
pupils,  to  render  them  doubtful  as  to  what  is  wanted.  Probably 
their  only  justifiable  use  is  for  developmental  purposes.  A  series  of 
several  may  be  asked,  of  which  the  last  is  the  only  one  to  which  an 
answer  is  expected.  The  others  serve  to  guide  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  along  the  right  lines  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  the  final 
question  and  must  deal  with  material  comparatively  well-known  by 
the  class.  The  following  questions  illustrate  such  a  series:  "What  is 
the  product  of  +8  by+6?  of  +5  by+4?of  -8  by-6?of  -5  by-4? 
What  rule  can  we  make  about  the  signs  of  the  products  of  numbers 
with  like  signs?" 

Drill  questions  asked  rapidly.  Drill  or  mere  factual  questions 
should  usually  be  asked  and  answered  rapidly.  In  this  respect  they 
are  directly  the  opposite  of  topical  questions,  upon  which  time  for 
thought  should  be  given.  They  are  generally  short  and  require  short 
answers.  If  the  pupil  first  named  cannot  give  the  answer  immediately 
another  should  be  called  upon.  Such  more  or  less  isolated  facts  as  the 
products  of  the  multiplication  table,  important  historical  dates, 
foreign  vocabularies,  etc.  represent  the  types  of  material  best  suited 
to  drill  questions. 

Conciseness  in  wording  questions.  One  requisite  of  a  well-stated 
question  is  that  it  be  concise;  it  should  be  stated  in  as  few  words  as 
are  consistent  with  clearness,  definiteness  and  completeness.  For 
example,  the  form  "WThat  is  the  sum  of  9  and  12?"  is  to  be  preferred 
to  "How  much-  do  we  get  when  9  and  12  are  added  together?" 
Similarily,  "What  effect  did  his  daughter's  singing  in  church  have  on 
the  blacksmith?"  is  better  than  "When  the  blacksmith  went  to  church 
on  Sunday  and  heard  his  daughter  singing  in  the  choir,  how  did  her 
singing  make  him  feel?" 

[11] 


Definiteness  in  statement  of  questions.  A  question  should  be 
definite.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  should  be  detailed  but  that  it 
should  be  so  worded  as  to  avoid  any  confusion  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils.  The  very  common  practice  of  beginning  questions  with  such 
expressions  as  "What  about"  and  "How  about"  is  likely  to  cause 
indefmiteness.  For  example,  the  question  "What  do  you  think  about 
Grant?"  would  be  much  more  effective  undoubtedly  in  stimulating 
the  pupils  to  guess  than  to  think  profitably  concerning  the  answer. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  some  occasions  when  these  expressions  are 
allowable.  If  reading  about  Grant  outside  the  text  has  been  done  it 
would  be  permissible  to  ask  "What  can  you  tell  us  about  Grant?"  In 
such  a  case  the  pupil  is  expected  not  to  give  a  limited  number  of 
definite  facts  but  to  contribute  anything  worthwhile  that  he  knows. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  class  has  been  instructed  to  learn  the  im- 
portant dates  in  Grant's  life  the  question,  "What  about  Grant?" 
would  be  decidedly  poor. 

Relevancy  of  material  in  questions.  A  question  should  not  con- 
tain irrelevant  material.  Its  inclusion  sometimes  tends  to  make  the 
question  more  of  a  puzzle  or  a  test  of  general  intelligence  than  a 
measure  of  what  is  known  concerning  the  subject-matter.  The  ques- 
tion,, "Why  was  Washington,  who  later  became  our  first  president, 
chosen  to  command  the  colonial  army?"  would  be  much  better  in  the 
shorter  form,  "Why  was  Washington  chosen  to  command  the  colonial 
army?"  It  is  especially  common  for  long  questions  containing  irrelev- 
ant material  to  be  found  in  arithmetic. 

Avoidance  of  language  of  the  book.  In  general,  questions  should 
not  follow  the  language  of  the  textbook  too  closely.  If  they  do  so 
they  tend  to  elicit  pure  memory  responses  rather  than  to  stimulate 
thinking.  Even  if  statements  which  have  been  memorized  are  desired, 
they  should  be  obtained  in  response  to  any  combination  of  words 
having  the  same  meaning  rather  than  to  merely  a  given  set  of  words. 
For  example,  the  question,  "Where  does  the  village  smithy  stand?" 
would  recall  often  the  first  two  lines  of  the  poem  and  thus  the  answer, 
although  the  pupils  might  remember  merely  the  words  and  not  really 
know  the  thought.  If  "Where  is  the  blacksmith's  shop  located?" 
were  asked,  the  correct  answer  would  show  that  the  thought  was 
understood. 

Repetition  of  questions  and  answers  an  uneconomical  habit. 
The  teacher  should  not  drift  into  the  habit  of  repeating  either  her 

[12] 


questions  or  the  pupils'  answers.  This  practice  tends  to  increase 
inattention  and  to  engender  a  careless  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils,  since  they  know  from  experience  they  will  probably  be  given 
a  second  opportunity.  Such  a  habit,  especially  that  of  repeating 
answers,  is  easily  acquired  and  wastes  much  time.  Of  course  if  poor 
enunciation,  obscure  wording,  or  some  confusion  in  the  classroom 
results  in  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the  question,  it  should  be 
repeated.  The  teacher,  however,  should  be  able  to  control  the  first 
two  obstacles  to  clear  understanding.^  It  is  sometimes  good  practice 
to  restate  a  distinctly  difficult  question,  or  one  dealing  with  new 
material.  In  case  a  pupil's  answer  is  not  understood  by  the  members 
of  the  class  it  should  be  repeated  by  the  pupil  himself  rather  than  by 
the  teacher.  Occasionally  the  teacher  may  repeat  a  pupil's  answer  in 
part,  elaborating  it  by  adding  details  that  she  alone  can  give  or  that 
are  not  worth  the  time  required  to  elicit  them  from  the  class. 

Confidence  on  part  of  teacher  secures  better  answers.  A  teacher 
should  ask  questions  confidently,  as  if  she  expected  a  correct  answer. 
It  is  difficult  to  do  this  when  calling  on  certain  individuals,  but  the 
confident  asking  of  questions  often  reassures  and  encourages  even 
those  pupils,  who  might  otherwise  become  confused  and  give  poor 
answers,  to  do  fairly  well  and  in  time  to  acquire  confidence  in  them- 
selves. Here  again,  however,  there  is  place  for  an  occasional  excep- 
tion. The  pupil,  who  thinks  he  knows  more  than  the  teacher  or  who 
tries  to  bluff,  probably  should  be  asked  some  questions  in  a  manner 
which  implies  that  in  the  teacher's  opinion  he  cannot  give  the  correct 
answer. 

Pursuit  of  individuals  sometimes  necessary,  but  should  be  min- 
imized. Class  time  should  not  be  wasted  in  pursuing  individuals. 
That  is  to  say,  pupils  who  refuse  or  are  unable  to  answer  questions 
should  be  passed  over  usually  with  a  minor  expenditure  of  time  rather 
than  be  given  the  attention  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  class  in  the  hope 
that  they  can  be  guided  to  give  correct  answers.  Individual  assist- 
ance is  needed  but  should  be  given,  in  so  far  as  there  is  opportunity, 
outside  the  regular  recitation  period.  In  case  there  is  no  such  oppor- 
tunity a  moderate  amount  of  time  must  be  devoted  during  class  to 
this  use.  A  closely  connected  principle  is  that  a  teacher  should  not 
insist  upon  pupils  trying  to  answer  questions  when  they  cannot  do 
so,  except  when  they  probably  know  the  correct  answer  but  are  too 
timid  to  speak.   Even  in  such  a  case  encouragement  rather  than  in- 

[13] 


sistence  should  be  used.  Insistence  upon  answers  is  likely  to  result 
either  in  the  encouragement  of  bluffing  and  guessing  or  in  the  provok- 
ing of  obstinancy  and  surliness. 

Commendation  and  reproof  should  be  limited  and  discrimina- 
tory. A  teacher's  commendation  for  good  answers  and  reproof  for 
poor  ones  should  be  limited  and  adapted  to  the  individual  members 
of  the  class.  However,  one  of  the  most  useful  plans  for  stimulating  a 
critical  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  class  and  for  leading  its  members 
to  think  is  to  have  the  answers  evaluated  and  criticized  by  other 
pupils.  Many  teachers  have  the  habit  of  calling  for  class  criticisms 
of  answers  that  need  correction  but  not  of  those  that  are  satisfactory. 
This  procedure  at  once  informs  the  class  of  the  teacher's  judgment 
and  thus  materially  lessens  the  critical  ability  required  for  discussion. 
If  there  is  not  time  for  evaluation  of  all  responses,  the  teacher  should 
call  for  criticisms  of  some  unsatisfactory  and  of  some  satisfactory 
answers.  It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  commendation  and 
reproof  should  never  be  given  in  class.  An  answer  that  is  unusually 
good,  whether  it  is  intrinsically  of  high  quality  or  of  lesser  merit  but 
unusually  good  for  the  individual  making  it,  should  receive  usually 
a  brief  word  of  commendation.  Likewise,  poor  answers  should  some- 
times be  reproved.  In  the  case  of  pupils  of  superior  ability  who  are 
not  working  up  to  their  capacities  and  in  the  case  of  those  who  are 
making  no  serious  effort,  a  few  words  of  reproof  often  are  not  mis- 
placed. If,  however,  either  commendation  or  reproof  is  very  common 
most  of  the  force  is  lost. 

$*  Adapting  questions  to  the  class.  It  seems  self-evident  that  ques- 
tions should  be  adapted  to  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the 
class,  yet  this  principle  is  frequently  violated.  It  is  not  desirable  that 
all  questions  be  easy  enough  for  the  poorest  members  of  the  class  to 
answer  correctly  but  merely  that  almost  all  come  within  the  ability 
of  a  number  of  the  pupils.  Some  should  certainly  be  easy  enough 
for  the  poorest  pupils  and  likewise  some  should  be  hard  enough  to 
test  the  ability  of  the  best  pupils.  In  pursuance  with  this  latter  prin- 
ciple a  very  good  pupil  may  occasionally  be  asked  a  question  which 
likely  cannot  be  answered  correctly  by  any  other  member  of  the  class. 
Addressing  questions  to  the  group  rather  than  to  individuals. 
Questions  should  be  addressed  to  the  group,  that  is,  to  the  class  as  a 
whole.  Two  means  of  accomplishing  this  are,  (1)  to  observe  the 
principle  just  discussed  that  the  question  be  adapted  to  the  ability  of 

[14] 


the  class,  and  (2)  to  state  the  question  before  indicating  the  pupil 
who  is  to  answer  it.  This  latter  procedure,  as  no  pupil  is  certain  that 
he  will  not  be  called  upon,  tends  to  keep  the  attention  of  all  members 
of  the  class.  An  exception  may  be  made  in  the  case  of  timid  pupils 
who  would  be  dismayed  by  having  their  names  called  after  a  question 
had  been  asked  but  who  by  being  named  first  are  given  a  brief 
opportunity  to  collect  their  thoughts  and  are  encouraged  to  prepare 
their  answers.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to  continue  this  practice 
with  any  one  individual  for  a  very  long  period  of  time. 

Distribution  of  questions  among  members  of  the  class.  One  of 
the  most  important  principles  to  be  observed  in  questioning,  especi- 
ally in  asking  test  questions,  is  that  there  be  a  proper  or  fair  distribu- 
tion among  the  pupils.  This,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  does  not  mean 
an  absolutely  random  distribution.  It  is  probably  wise  to  distribute 
questions,  especially  test  ones,  at  random  during  a  portion  of  the 
recitation  period.  A  pack  of  cards  upon  which  the  pupils'  names  are 
written  may  be  shuffled  or  some  other  similar  means  used  for  this 
purpose.  At  other  times  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  adapting 
the  questions  to  the  individuals  composing  the  class.  The  duller 
pupils  should  receive  more  th-an  their  proportional  share  of  the  easy 
questions  and  the  brighter  ones  more  than  their  share  of  the  harder 
questions.  Thus  the  duller  pupils,  by  being  able  to  give  some  satis- 
factory answers,  are  encouraged  and  the  more  gifted,  by  being  re- 
quired to  use  their  superior  ability,  are  stimulated.  The  actual 
number  of  test  questions  asked  of  each  individual  in  the  class  ought 
to  be  approximately  the  same.  As  regards  the  other  types,  develop- 
mental and  informational,  the  same  rule  should  probably  apply 
though  with  a  more  liberal  interpretation  of  "approximately."  In 
addition  to  distributing  questions  at  random  and  according  to  in- 
dividual needs  there  should  be  occasions  when  volunteers  are  allowed 
to  answer.  Most  teachers  permit  this  but  in  many  cases  a  few  of  the 
brighter  pupils  volunteer  almost  all  the  time  and  answer  most  of  the 
questions.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  volunteers  often  are 
called  for  on  the  hardest  questions  and  partly,  to  the  fact  that  the 
brighter  pupils  think  more  quickly  and  are  more  eager  to  answer 
than  the  dull  ones.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it,  however,  that  a 
number  of  the  questions  asked  of  volunteers  are  easy  enough  for  the 
slower  pupils  and  that  this  group  is  actually  permitted  to  answer 
them.  Another  point  to  mention  in  connection  with  the  distribution 
of  questions  is  that  no  fixed  order  or  rotation  should  be  observed. 

[15] 


If  this  is  done  each  pupil  knows  in  advance  just  when  he  is  to  be 
called  upon  and,  having  answered  his  question,  can  withdraw  his 
attention  from  the  recitation  until  his  turn  comes  again.  Even  when 
a  fixed  order  is  not  being  followed  a  pupil  who  has  just  recited  has  a 
tendency  to  turn  his  attention  elsewhere,  as  he  thinks  he  will  not  be 
called  upon  again  soon.  It  is  therefore  a  good  habit  occasionally  to 
ask  a  second  question  of  a  pupil  within  a  short  time  after  his  first 
answer  m  order  to  impress  upon  him  that  he  is  held  responsible  dur- 
ing the  entire  recitation. 

Pupils*  answers  to  questions  need  attention.  The  matter  of 
answering  questions  is  one  that  has  received  comparatively  little 
attention  in  educational  thought  and  literature.  Many  teachers  who 
are  skillful  in  asking  questions  give  no  thought  or  attention  to  the 
problem  of  teaching  pupils  how  to  answer  them.  It  is  not  the  purpose 
of  the  writer  to  enter  into  a  detailed  discussion  of  this  matter,  but 
he  wishes  to  suggest  its  importance  and  to  mention  a  few  general 
principles  that  may  be  considered. 

In  the  first  place,  a  number  of  the  principles  that  apply  to  ques- 
tioning apply  also  to  answering.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  give 
concise,  well-worded,  clear,  and  complete  answers.  Complete  answers 
should  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  answers  must  be  in  complete 
sentences,  however.  There  is  some  justification  for  requiring  this  in 
the  case  of  persons  learning  another  language  or  of  young  children 
learning  their  own  language,  but  with  most  pupils  this  justification 
certainly  does  not  exist  above  the  middle  elementary  grades.  In 
many  situations,  the  requiring  of  complete  sentence  answers  results 
not  only  in  a  waste  of  time  but  also  in  a  stilted  and  formal  recitation. 
For  example,  if  "What  is  the  sum  of  6  and  3 :"  is  asked,  to  accept 
'w9"  as^  the  answer  is__muchr  better  than  to  require,  "The  sum  of  6 
and  3  is  9."  Likewise,  if  a  French  class  is  given  the  question,  "What 
is  the  word  for  pen?",  the  answer  "la  plume"  should  be  accepted 
instead  of  requiring,  "The  word  for  pen  is  la  plume,"  or  "La  plume 
means  the  pen." 

It  is  a  very  common  practice  to  call  for  simultaneous  or  con- 
certed answers.  In  most  cases  such  responses  result  in  a  volume  of 
noise  out  of  which  practically  nothing  can  be  distinguished  by  a 
person  who  does  not  know  the  answer  to  expect.  Frequently  pupils 
have  erroneous  ideas  concerning  the  correct  pronunciation  of  some 
words  or  concerning  some  fact  and,  although  the  answer  is  given  in 

[16] 


concert  time  and  again,  they  never  detect  the  difference  between  the 
correct  and  their  own  incorrect  idea.  The  writer  does  not  mean  to 
say  that  simultaneous  answers  should  never  be  called  for  but  that 
their  use  should  be  infrequent.  One  occasion  when  they  may  well  be 
used  is  in  assigning  vocabularies  and  paradigms  in  a  foreign 
language.  The  teacher  may  pronounce  the  new  word  or  repeat  the 
paradigm  and  then,  perhaps  after  calling  upon  one  or  two  pupils  to 
pronounce  it  first,  have  the  class  do  so  in  unison.  When,  however,  the 
recitation  is  held  to  determine  how  well  this  material  has  been 
acquired  individual  answers  are  in  order.  Another  occasion  for  the 
use  of  concerted  answers  is  in  the  case  of  a  pupil  who  does  not  know 
a  point  that  is  known  by  practically  every  member  of  the  class,  and 
who  may  be  stimulated  to  learn  if  he  sees  that  he  is  almost  the  only 
one  who  does  not  possess  certain  information. 

The  whole  problem  of  teaching  pupils  Itbw  to  answer  questions 
is  rather  closely  bound  up  with  that  of  teaching  them  how  to  study. 
One  of  the  big  tasks  is  to  teach  them  where  to  find  the  material  to 
use  in  answering  questions  and  how  to  deal  with  it  when  found.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  possible  to  go  further  into  this  matter  at  this  time.  } 

Self-improvement  in  questioning  by  teachers.  In  order  to  guide 
a  teacher  who  wishes  to  improve  her  questioning,  a  suggested  pro- 
cedure is  given  below.  She  should  firsP'review  the  principles  of  good 
questioning  and  analyze  her  own  questioning  as  best  she  can  in  the 
light  of  these  principles.  Next  shrshould  make  a  list  of  those  points 
in  which  she  believes  she  is  least  effective.  Finally  she^-ought  to 
concentrate  upon  some  one  of  these  principles  for  a  short  time,  say 
two  weeks,  and  endeavor  to  make  as  much  improvement  as  possible. 
During  this  period  she  should  from  day  to  day  review  the  question- 
ing she  has  just  done  and  see  if  she  is  making  definite  improvement 
and  if  not,  why.  After  such  a  period  of  concentration  upon  one  prin- 
ciple she  may  take  up  another,  then*  another,  and  so  on.  From  time 
to  time  a  check-up  should  be  made  to  provide  against  relapses  into  old 
and  faulty  habits  temporarily  broken  during  the  periods  of  concen- 
tration. These  check-ups  may  show  that  second  periods  of  concen- 
tration are  needed  upon  certain  principles.  This  whole  procedure  can 
be  made  more  helpful  and  effective  if,  in  addition  to  her  own  criti- 
cism, the  teacher  has  the  benefit  of  that  of  an  impartial  and  capable 
observer. 


[17] 


Selected  references  dealing  with  questioning.  Although  the 
writer  has  attempted  to  present  a  fairly  detailed  list  of  rules  that 
should  govern  good  questioning  with  a  brief  discussion  of  each,  a 
much  more  extended  treatment  of  the  subject  probably  would  be 
found  profitable.  The  following  references  do  not  in  any  sense  con- 
stitute a  complete  bibliography  but  are  distinctly  helpful  and  are  well 
adapted  to  supplement  the  material  which  has  been  presented  in  this 
circular.  The  monograph  by  Miss  Stevens  is  distinctive  in  that  it 
presents  a  study  of  the  question  as  actually  used  in  a  number  of 
recitations.  The  other  references  contain  more  general  discussions. 
Charters,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  Revised  and  enlarged. 
Chicago:    Row,  Peterson  and  Company,  1912,  p.  296-313. 

Colvin,  S.  S.   An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching.   New 
York:   The  Macmillan  Company,  1921,  p.  310-33. 

Davis,  S.  E.  The  Work  of  the  Teacher.   New  York:   The  Mac- 
millan Company,  1918,  p.  183-93,  212-15. 

Holley,  C.  E.  The  Teacher's  Technique.  New  York:  Century 
Company,  1922,  p.  82-88. 

Nutt,  H.  W.  Principles  of  Teaching  High  School  Pupils.  New 
York:    Century  Company,  1922,  p.  238-47. 

Parker,  S.  C.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School.  Revised 
Edition.    Boston:    Ginn  and  Company,  1920,  p.  465-74. 

Stevens,  Romiett.  The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency 
in  Instruction.  Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education,  No. 
48.  New  York:   Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1912,  p.  95. 


[18] 


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